Education and Social Mobility

Women's Pursuit of Education and Social Mobility During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

            
           Adeline Mowbray by Amelia Opie, Mansfield Park and Persuasion by Jane Austen, and Desmond by Charlotte Smith are all works we have read this semester that address the notion of education for women and its effects on female agency.  Before I discuss the different notions of education in each publication, I think it is important to note that the mid seventeen to eighteen hundreds was a time when women had little opportunity for social mobility. Any female social progression occurred through the power of a man and the institution of marriage.  Each of the previously mentioned authors challenges the oppressive society women were forced to live in, and characterize the Romantic period that strayed from the social and political norms created by the Age of Enlightenment (Casey 26).

            Adeline Mowbray by Amelia Opie addresses the dilemma between formal and informal education, specifically referring to the pursuit of academic versus domestic training. The reader can observe an alternating generational pattern amongst the Mowbray women. ‘Grandma’ Mowbray (Mrs. Mowbray’s mother) received no formal education, contrasting with the childhood of her daughter (Mrs. Mowbray) who studied politics and philosophy. Grandma Mowbray’s disproval of her daughter’s decision to replace common knowledge with worldly knowledge directly impacts the educational path of Adeline, who finds herself deciding which identity to adapt.  Mrs. Mowbray trains Adeline in domestic practices, but both women also value additional knowledge as shown by their attention to progressive ideas provided by Glenmurray.  After the death of her grandmother, Adeline is able to learn more through conversations with Mrs. Mowbray and Dr. Norberry. The debate we have talked about this semester in class is what educational track is Opie promoting through the character of Adeline? Kate and Elise both wonder aloud in their posts about what Opie’s true intention is. In Kate’s post titled “Education,” she writes, “Does the author believe in the role of the homemaker? Education of the classics? Education of politics and philosophy? The shared interest in progressive teachings made me think the author agreed with such policies.”  Elise echoes a similar message when she writes, “This seemingly blind devotion to the anti-marriage ideal which only leads to negative consequences makes me wonder whether Opie was trying to make a point as she mentioned earlier in the novel about valuing experience over theory, or whether she had a greater message about women’s oppression as Adeline is trapped by societal norms.” Elise is right when she points out in her post “What’s the message?” that the outcome of Adeline’s decision to defy social norms does not seem to end well. She states, “Her dedication to these progressive teachings find Adeline only abandoned by her friends and mother, constantly facing trials, and a source of scandal.” One can determine Opie’s opinion on what she views as the appropriate path through a letter written by Adeline to Mourdant.  Opie’s voice comes through when the letter says:

"I am convinced, that if the ties of marriage were dissolved, or it were not longer to be judged infamous to act in contempt of them, unbridled licentiousness would soon be in general practice.--What then, in such a state of society, would be the fate of the children born in it?--What would their education be?--Parents continually engrossed in the...new and happy love, lost in selfish indulgence...without morals or instruction [children] would grow up to scourge the world by their vices, till the whole fabric of civilized society was gradually destroyed" (Opie 256).  

Kathryn thought Opie’s intention of this passage was to use “Adeline as an example of what could happen, even to the most honest, virtuous and respectable of people, if society accepts kept mistresses the same as wives,” as she writes in her post titled, “Marriage and Education.” I agree with Kathryn’s analysis that Opie is warning of the consequences of a society disenchanted with the institution of marriage, but I believe that one can argue honesty and virtue have no influence on the fate of one who doesn’t marry. Despite the curiosity and intelligence displayed by Adeline, she is still urged by an enlightened character, Glenmurray, to accept the easy way out. By this I mean that even though Glenmurray realizes on his deathbed that his adherence to social expectations are partially responsible for the fate of Adeline, he still encourages her to marry to avoid future sorrow.  In my earlier post “Glenmurray’s Reflections,” I write that “He has enough insight to realize that his contribution to the expectations of that time led to the demise of Adeline, who made the fatal mistake of rejecting the institution of marriage. This being said, he wants Adeline to marry in order to avoid loneliness and an ‘injured reputation.’ Despite his admittance that the system is flawed, he still adheres to the oppressive standards reflected in his final wishes for Adeline.”  I think the fate of Adeline and the recommendation to marry made by the most forward thinking character in the novel reflects Opie’s intended message that a woman who rejects the formal companionship of a man and a domestic identity will never achieve social mobility.

         Émile, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1762, provides some insight to England’s culture and the treatment of women during the eighteenth century. Rousseau suggests in Emile that a child’s destiny should be determined by his or her natural talents and they should not resist the implications of being born either male or female. This acceptance of gender roles caused early women’s rights activists to speak out against adherence to such a system, arguing that it was impractical for women to only learn how to obtain a suitor. Once a woman successfully married, there was nothing left to do but to settle into the limited role society expected of them.  Opie preaches some aspects of gender identity through her portrayal of Adeline’s fate in the novel, but Rosseau’s aggressive approach to gender roles conflicts with the notion of dual forms of education for women. The below image is the frontispiece to Émile, depicting a woman bathing her children in "the waters of nature" (Abbs 36). The portrayal of the woman with her children positioned below the man is consistent with Rousseau's views towards gender role identification.  

          In Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park, education is not frequently discussed but the effects of poor teachings are evident through the example of the Betram family. Not only does the destiny of the family suggest the role of education in society, a few of my classmates discussed the value of self-education and its impact on female social mobility in the novel.  The example set by Sir Thomas is one that exemplifies a lack of vision and amplifies his personal insecurities. He fails to educate his children properly because of his frequent absence. Sir Thomas does not personally ensure his sons are learning what they should at school and the education of the girls is left up to Mrs. Norris. The emotional distance created by Sir Thomas’ decision to play a minimal role in the education of his children is characterized by the following passage:

Perhaps a father, blest with any brains,
Would deem it no abuse, or waste of pains,
To improve this diet [a student's schooling], at no great expense,
With savoury truth and wholesome common sense;...
...To show him in an insect or a flower
Such microscopic proof of skill and power
As, hid from ages past, God now displays
To combat atheists with in modern days;...
...To teach his heart to glow with generous flame,
Caught from the deeds of men of ancient fame;
And, more than all, with commendation due,
To set some living worthy in his view,
Whose fair example may at once inspire
A wish to copy what he must admire.

This excerpt suggests that it is a father’s duty to educate his children on the religious and moral expectations of the time. Sir Thomas’ failure to bestow knowledge of morality and respect of God on his children can be seen as Austen’s way of arguing that these lessons should not be forgotten in a child’s upbringing. The unimpressive development of the Bertram children, with the exceptions of Edmund and Fanny Price, emphasizes her point.  Tom Bertram gambles away his brother’s fortune and drinks excessively, almost to the point where he dies of fever: “a neglected fall, and a good deal of drinking, had brought on a fever," and Maria and Julia Bertram are portrayed as vain and selfish.  Edmund is only able to escape a similar persona because of his status as a second son that forces him to be self-reliant and independent. The following excerpt illustrates Edmund’s luck in turning out to be morally sound despite his lack of parental supervision:

And if it chance, as sometimes chance it will,
That though school-bred the boy be virtuous still;
Such rare exceptions, shining in the dark,
Prove, rather than impeach, the just remark:
As here and there a twinkling star descried
Serves but to show how black is all beside.

The passage reflects Edmund’s deviance from the critique of the education of the Bertram children, indicative of his positive influence on Fanny. Fanny Price, who is forced to live with the Bertram’s, is fortunate to benefit from the presence of Edmund in her life. She is subtlety able to educate herself with the help of her cousin and Mrs. Norris.

            The lack of parental education and the resulting negative consequences in Mansfield Park are reflected through the education of the Crawford family as well. Throughout the novel it is repeatedly mentioned that the Crawford’s are inhibited by the unsavory influence of their uncle, the Admiral.  His example suggests that adherence to societal standards and the consideration of others are not necessary traits. The Admiral is publicly associated with a mistress and his nephew’s inappropriate behavior can be viewed as a direct product of his father figure’s actions.   In Madison’s post “Female Agency” she comments on the abrasiveness of Mary Crawford’s conversations with Edmund, which Madison describes as, “(Mary Crawford) often trampled on the lines of propriety when talking to Edmund, something he often found more charming than alarming.” This behavior is similar to that of her brother Henry, who aggressively flirts with Fanny but fails to impress her.  Madison makes the astute observation that when compared to the fates of Maria and Julia, Fanny finds the most happiness in her marriage to Edmund. Madison viewed this as, “If there was a message from all of this, I think it shows that wealth cannot buy manners, as the wealthiest women in this novel seem to misbehave the most.”  Not only is money unable to buy class, it does not substitute for a lack of self-awareness either. In Elise’s post, “What Counts as Education,” she comments that Julia’s education was void of the concept that one must understand the “knowledge of [our] own heart[s],” therefore leaving her unable to function effectively in relation to others and in society overall. The Rise of Feminine Authority by Nancy Armstrong discusses Austen’s belief that in order to accurately portray the intricacies of personal relationships one must first understand themselves.

            Austen’s later novel, Persuasion, reflects her belief in the possibility of rational thought for both women and men. It is important to incorporate an outside source when describing the Enlightenment views present in Persuasion, specifically the referencing of Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Wollstonecraft published this early example of feminist philosophy 26 years before Austen’s Persuasion, but the two works share the common theme of speaking out against an oppressive society that forced women to remain ignorant and emotional instead of rational human beings. Wollstonecraft and Persuasion’s Sophia Croft both comment on the mental limitations placed upon women, shown in A Vindication of the Rights of Women: "Their senses are inflamed, and their understandings neglected" (61), which results in "to their senses, are women made slaves" (62). Wollstonecraft is arguing that women are restricted by the expectation that they should be in touch with a heightened sense of emotion, therefore limiting themselves in rational understanding of the world. Sophia Croft explains this social injustice to her brother Wentworth when she says, "I hate to hear you talking so like a fine gentleman, as if women were all fine ladies, instead of rational creatures. We none of us expect to be in smooth water all our days" (50). Although Wollstonecraft can be viewed as a revolutionary thinker compared to Austen’s more conservative persona, both argue for the education of women.

            Wollstonecraft argued that a society that fails to educate its female population is doing itself a disservice because women are the primary educators of children (Wollstonecraft).  Jane Austen discounted the value of books because men were the sole publishers before her time. She writes in Persuasion, "If you please, no reference to examples in books. Men have had every advantage of us in telling their own story. Education has been theirs in so much higher a degree; the pen has been in their hands. I will not allow books to prove anything.”  Anne’s mother is portrayed in Persuasion as “sensible and amiable” (2), and displays her many capabilities by running the household until her death. It is Anne’s emulation of her mother’s sensibility and thoughtfulness that makes her appealing to both Benwick and Wentworth.  Benwick appreciates her knowledge of literature, and Wentworth is drawn to her wit and sharp mind. Austen depicts her heroine, Anne Elliot, as a rational woman who finds herself thinking at a higher capacity than those less-enlightened women in the novel. Wollstonecraft and Austen both appreciate the need for rational thought to become a societal norm for not only men but women as well. Cultural Participation:Trends Since the Middle Ages by Ann Rigney discusses further the emerging division of those with varying degrees of education and the resulting social mobility in Jane Austen England.

            Two different bloggers, Kate and Catherine, both comment on their perception of education in Persuasion and whether it is possible for women to achieve social mobility without the assistance of a male figure. In Kate’s post “Male Social Mobility” she argues that marriage is the only way for women to advance in society because military service is the most feasible mode of progression, however its stigma of promoting people to an “undue distinction” makes it arguably hard for even male characters to achieve social mobility through this avenue.  If it is hard for even hard-working men to earn respect through service in the Navy then it is a valid point that social mobility is near impossible for women in the novel.  In my post titled, “Don’t Doubt the Nouveau Riche,” I comment on the lunacy of snubbing those who actually worked for their money instead of inheriting it from birth. I write:

"Those who gain wealth and admiration through service are referred to as just people of lowly birth promoted to an undue distinction, as characterized by Sir Walter. This 'undue distinction' is definitely questionable because after the Napoleonic Wars Wentworth is worth £25,000, which is about £2.5 million today. Not too shabby for someone who was turned down years earlier for not being up to snuff."

The image below depicts the British Fleet, larger in size than all other naval forces of that time combined. Jane Austen is known for her support of the Royal Navy, attributed to the fact that she had two brothers who served to protect the British people (Jeffers).  

Catherine acknowledges the ridiculousness of society’s narrow-minded approach of social mobility when she writes in her post titled “Austen on Education.” She praises Anne for her sound judgment when she writes, “When we meet Anne at the beginning of Persuasion, she has already been through a relationship and a breakup (with Wentworth). She has learned from this experience and has grown to trust her gut. Society tells her to judge people based on rank, reputation, and appearance, but Anne has learned to look past the surface superficialities.” Her point that Anne knows to disregard the impossible boundaries created by society is backed with her assertion that experimental learning is the best form of education because there is no substitute for experience. Anne’s unusual social outlook that was uncharacteristic of women at the time proves Austen and Catherine’s point that education can be achieved through one’s own analysis of past events.  

            Lastly, Desmond by Charlotte Smith takes into account the education of women through the topic of politics. Smith makes it clear from the novel’s preface that she disagrees with the notion that women “have no business with politics” (Smith 45).  Her unconventional stress on women’s understanding of history reflects her belief that they should be educated in order to understand the ever-changing world around them.  For example, a woman’s knowledge of the French Revolution would make her more suitable to discuss politics and consider the implications of recent social change. Despite Smith’s focus on women’s understanding of history and the world, her portrayal of Geraldine left myself as well as some of my fellow bloggers bothered by her passive nature. Jane voices her opinion on the subject when she writes in her post labeled, “Geraldine: Frustration to Understanding:”

"Throughout the second and third volumes of Desmond, my intolerance of Geraldine’s concern for societal standards of conduct over well being grew with each grievance Mr. Verney would force upon her.  Geraldine’s sense of necessary obedience to her husband and to her mother renders her a character unable to fight for her standard of living and for that of her children." 

Jane is disappointed with Geraldine’s lack of self-sufficiency and abandonment of “womanly duty.” She disagrees with Geraldine’s prioritization of her husband and mother when she feels that her children should come first. Elise references her loss of hope in Geraldine in her post titled “Connecting Geraldine to the Politics” when she writes:

 "I initially felt hope for her and Desmond as it seemed she was not only unhappy in her current marital situation, but also complimentary of Desmond and seemingly jealous of Madame de Boisbelle. As the novel progressed as Jane noted, I felt this hope fade as Geraldine showed to be steadfast in her beliefs to remain a dutiful wife upholding all societal standards placed upon her despite her unhappiness."

Elise does not admire Geraldine’s submission to her sad living situation, but views her passive personality as Smith’s attempt to make a political statement about the social injustice that left women with no choice but to embrace the common role of a house wife.  Elise makes the poignant observation that Smith juxtaposes the backdrop of the French Revolution with Geraldine’s unhappy marriage. Ironically, the French fought against the oppressive society they were immersed in through acts of war and action, but this concept is lost on Geraldine who is set free from her repressive marriage only by her husband’s quiet passing.

           

            We have seen a variety of educational forms and ideals in regards to women throughout many of the texts we read this semester. Adeline Mowbray by Amelia Opie, Mansfield Park and Persuasion by Jane Austen, and Desmond by Charlotte Smith all comment on the role of education in the lives of women and the potential for achieved social mobility. An increase in female agency was a challenge during a time when society required women to depend on their husbands for social progression. Amelia Opie, Jane Austen, and Charlotte Smith are all female authors who voiced their opinions on the education of women, welcoming the Romantic period that would produce new social and moral standards. 

Bibliography

Abbs, Peter. Living Powers: The Arts in Education. New York: Psychology Press, 1987. Print.

Armstrong, Nancy. “The Rise of Feminine Authority in the Novel.” NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction 15 (1982): 127-145. Web.

Casey, Christopher. ""Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin
Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1 30 October 2008. Web.

Jeffers, Regina. "The British Royal Navy." ReginaJeffers's Blog. 10 January 2011. 

Rigney, Ann. Cultural Participation: Trends Since the Middle Ages. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1993. Print.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Émile. Trans. Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1979. Print.  

Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the rights of men, in a letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; occasioned by his Reflections on the Revolution in France. London: Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, 1979. Web.