Masculinity

The Emergence of the "New Gentlemen" 

Before I begin my discussion, I think it is important to understand what “masculinity” meant in the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-centuries.  According to the Oxford English Dictionary, masculinity is best defined as “the state or fact of being masculine; the assemblage of qualities regarded as characteristic of men; maleness, manliness” (OED).  Jane Austen and her contemporaries wrote at a time of great debate regarding the ideal male form.  Edmund Burke believed masculinity was, “That generous loyalty to rank and sex…that dignified obedience, that subordination of the heart, which kept alive…the spirit of exalted freedom…The cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise” (Burke). In response to Burke’s glorification of traditional ideals, Mary Wollstonecraft accused Burke, and the demonstration of masculinity, of “insultingly supporting [men’s] own superiority” (Wollstonecraft). In all the novels we read this semester, I would argue that none fit the prescribed definition of a traditional masculine form.  Instead, Austen, Opie, and Radcliffe introduce a “subtle yet progressive depictions of men.” The men break societal expectations for male figures and remain loyal to, as well as serve to protect, the women that they love.

The first words of The Romance of the Forest are in the epigraph of Chapter One, “I am a man.”  Pierre de La Motte embodies the traditional male form that Burke clings to in his writing.  He is a member of a society, so as the novel opens, he is fleeing from the law because of his acquired gambling debts. However, Pierre is described as a man of passions and driven by feelings over principles. In her post, “Eeekk!” Gabrielle accuses La Motte of being “the worst offender, as his mysterious desire for solitude, his restlessness, and his overt anger at those who try to converse with him drive Madame La Motte to distrust Adeline.”  However, as the novel progresses and La Motte’s character develops, Radcliffe redeems himself, and his gender, as he demonstrates the upmost kindness to Adeline.  In her post, “Character Development,” Catherine comments that, “La Motte transforms from a ‘cruel enemy’ to a man sincerely concerned with Adeline’s well-being (234).  No Longer a powerless servant, La Motte decides to face the Marquis’ wrath and help Adeline escape.”  Through his act of kindness and bravery, La Motte redirects his passions and transforms from a coward to a Man of Feelings.  Johnson describes this development: “La Motte is at his best only when he gives way to his feelings, especially for Adeline, without the intervention of reason.  The Romance of the Forest demonstrates to readers that masculine feelings must be disciplined, but it never doubts that good men are men whose conduct is “suggested by feeling” (Johnson, 75).

On the contrary, Glenmurray is a man that epitomizes the teachings of Wollstonecraft in her advocacy for women’s rights.  Glenmurray’s ideologies mislead Adeline; however, his actions portray him who genuinely cares for Adeline’s wellbeing. Tara’s post, “Reviews of Adeline Mowbray,” picks up on the reviewer’s praises of Glenmurray’s character and heroic nature.  King defines Glenmurray’s character “a new masculinity based on reason, domestic affection and civil responsibility rather than physical courage and martial ability” (King, 123).  In his treatment of Adeline, Glenmurray offers a new masculine nature.  Glenmurray is a man of sensitivities and sensibilities; his character is blameless and virtuous.  However, Glenmurray’s treatise fights against the social standard of marriage and drives Adeline to her demise.  Despite his teachings, Glenmurray repeatedly demonstrates respect toward Adeline to uphold the dignity of her character.  When Glenmurray realizes that people are mocking the Mowbray women for conversing with him, he “heroically [sacrifices] his own gratification to save Mrs. Mowbray and Adeline from further censure” (365).  In addition, he refuses to attend the Mowbray’s party as to way to protect the dignity of the women. Glenmurray is transformed by his love for Adeline and, until his death, is willing to abandon his teachings and his honor.  In his post, “Glennmurray’s Reflection,” Jess wrote, “Glenmurray’s final concern of Adeline’s fate [is] interesting, and the regret he feels regarding societal standard close to the time of his death.  He has enough insight to realize that his contribution to the expectations of the time led to the demise of Adeline.”  Elise highlights in her post, “Disclosure in Death,”  that this reflection was fuelled by an “emotional confession.” Therefore, Glenmurray redefines the relationship between males and females.  He respects Adeline’s character and is willing to sacrifice his honor for her wellbeing.  In summary, Glenmurray expresses his feelings through his genuine interest in Adeline’s honor.

In Austen’s novel, Mansfield Park, Austen takes the developing Man of Feeling and refines it to her own masculine type.  Edmund initially satisfies a traditional masculine role; however, by the conclusion of the novel he transforms into a Man of Feeling.  Edmund is the second son of Sir Thomas and is scheduled to enter the clerical ranks. Elise wrote about this in her post, “A Clergyman is nothing.”   She writes, “Having to make his own way in the world enhances his noble character…because things are not simply handed to him; he has to make his own decisions and forge his own path.” When researching for our Masculinity presentation, I learned that it was common for men to enter the clergy without being “called by God.”  Elise picked up on this in Mary’s attack on Edmund’s future profession, “[Mary] asserts that it is impossible for men to ‘distinguish themselves’ by working in the church (Austen, 116), and that clergymen really do not have any influence on society: since they are ‘so seldom seen,’ they cannot possibly ‘govern the conduct and fashion the manners of a large congregation’ (Austen, 117).”  Mary, and Elise, certainly picked up on the lack of consistency between Edmund’s character and his future profession.  However, according to Collins’s text, Jane Austen and the Clergy, it was not uncommon for clergy men of Austen’s time to practice ‘nominal residence.”  This meant that a “clergyman who had no other parish to his name could nevertheless spend most of his time elsewhere…to carry out minimal duties only (Collins, 94). Overall, Collins describes Edmund as a “gentlemanly type of parson” and goes as far to argue that Edmund’s sensitivities would have prohibited his success as a clergy (Collins, 158).

Throughout the novel, it is apparent that Edmund’s actions are driven by his emotional understandings of women.  CBennett picked up on this in her post, “Nature vs. Nurture,” when she describes Edmund falling victim to the immoral elements of The Lover’s Vow.  This is echoed in the post, “Real or Not Real,”  in which Elise highlights that Edward is caught “’Between his theatrical and his real part (Austen, 182),’ [and] is totally preoccupied.”  Edmund’s decision to partake in the play is driven by his affections for Mary.  Therefore, Austen tends to direct the narrative blame on Mary, and the elite’s, naivety rather than Edmund’s character.  Despite his imperfections, Edmund’s character and treatment of Fanny redeem his hypocritical actions. Edmund is extremely kind and considerate to his cousin and he respects her as an individual.  Early on, in Chapter 2, Edmund comforts his cousin as she cries by the stairs.  This is illustrated in the included woodcut illustration by Joan Hassall.    

The woodcut depicts Edmund comforting his crying cousin as she unleashes her emotions about the other family member’s mistreating her.  Edmund’s genuine concern and care for his cousin is evident in the woodcut. Edmund continues to care for his cousin’s emotional needs and eventually recognizes his feelings for her. Therefore, in the end, ‘mind’ and ‘understanding’ are greater than ‘brain’ and ‘intelligence’ (Collins, 157).  Through Edmund, Austen takes the developing masculine type and introduces her readers to the Man of Feeling.   

In Persuasion, Austen uses the Man of Feeling to break down social barriers that define the men in the novel.  Sir Walter represents the “British elite” and Captain Wentworth is the epitome of a “new gentlemen.” According to Rubinstein, the elite was judged by the father’s social status and can be broken into seven categories: Top landowners (3,000+ acres), smaller landowners, famers (which included civil servants), lower-middle class (clerks, small shops, teachers), skilled manual and manual supervisory workers, semi-skilled manual workers, and unskilled workers (Rubinstein, 179).  During the Napoleonic Wars, men of “lowly births” could enlist in the Royal Navy and earn great fortunes. 

In the illustration, “Curse of a Military Life,” the scene comments on the unfair distribution of money. On the left, the scene is labeled “FULL PAY-Borough Interest” and depicts to fully paid officers drinking and toasting to their recently received promotion papers.  On the other side, the scene is marked “HALF PAY- Ingrata Patria (Ungrateful Homeland)” and illustrates an injured veteran, with children. The cartoon comments on the mixed purposes of war: for peace and for pay.  The officers on the left celebrate peace, however, the man on the right needs war to pay for his family.  This misconception is held by and commented on by Sir Walter in Chapter 4 of Persuasion.

While Sir Walter is obsessed with a spending money in attempts to assert his “higher” status, Captain Wentworth demonstrates bravery and dedication to climb the social ladder. Sir Walter is a man obsessed with status and appearance.  Tara’s post, “Vanity in the men,” comments on Sir Walter’s focus on looks and ranks.  She cites his description, “Vanity was the beginning and the end of Sir Walter’s character… His looks and his rank had one fair claim on his attachment; since to them he owed a wife of very superior character to anything deserved by his own.” Lady Russell also holds on to the old ideals of the class system when she advises Anne to turn down Wentworth’s proposal.  Gabrielle wrote about this in her post, “The Navy and Social Standing,” she writes, “Although Wentworth was a good man, he was a dangerous match because he had no set prospects.”  However, he successfully serves in the Navy and returns with a high rank and an even larger fortune, an indication of his bravery. In my post, “Male Social Mobility,” as well as CBennett’s post, “So being persuaded is…good? Sir Walter’s commentary on the Navy promoting people of lowly birth to an “undue distinction” epitomizes the social elite’s opinion on the rising class of male citizens.  Through these two male figures, Austen sets up a contrast between the elite and the “new gentlemen.”  She highlights the differences through the tension between Sir Walter and Lady Russells’s disapproval of Captain Wentworth and Anne’s decision to marry him at the end of the novel. It is evident that Captain Wentworth is the ideal match for Anne and the two wed at the conclusion of the novel.  Through the character of Captain Wentworth, Austen provides her readers with a “new gentleman” that is not defined by traditional social statuses, but by his strength of character and treatment of women. 

Through the four texts, a new form of masculinity emerges to create a “new gentlemen.” The two male figures, La Motte and Glenmurray, take traditional forms of masculinity and form the new “Man of Feelings.”  Jane Austen provides two examples of men that break down societal barriers for the women they love and respect. In doing so, she provides two new types of masculinity: a man that overcomes social confines to care for the woman he loves and respects. The emergence of the “New Gentlemen” serves as the ideal partner for Austen’s strong heroines. This paves the way for the emergence of female autonomy and opportunity.  So while the early nineteenth-century was defined by dominant masculine figures, the emergence of the "Man of Feeling" allowed for a more independent female role (V&A).   

Works Consulted

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France. London: 1790. Eighteenth-Century Collections Online. Web.